Film photography gets complicated as soon as you move beyond the camera itself. You have to choose between a reusable body, a disposable camera, a half-frame format, or an instant print before you have taken a single picture. The right choice depends on how much control you want and how willing you are to accept missed focus, delayed results, or the cost of processing.
Our Best film cameras list starts with the Canon AE-1, the most capable traditional SLR here, then moves through the Pentax 17, several Kodak Ektar H35 versions, simple Fujifilm cameras, a screenless digital alternative, and Instax film for instant shooters. The products are not interchangeable, but each has a clear reason to exist.
The Canon AE-1 is our top pick, while the rest cover easy half-frame shooting, autofocus SLR photography, one-time-use convenience, digital nostalgia, and instant prints.
Comparison
| # | Product | Award | Format or control | Key feature | Weight | Best for |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Canon AE-1 | Best overall | 35mm SLR | TTL metering, manual and auto exposure | 1.95 lb | Learning classic film photography |
| 2 | Kodak Ektar H35 Sage Bundle | Best beginner bundle | 35mm half-frame | Built-in flash, focus-free design | 0.44 lb | Casual everyday shooting |
| 3 | Pentax 17 | Best premium half-frame | 35mm half-frame | Six-zone focus, 25mm F3.5 lens | 1.35 lb | Deliberate half-frame photography |
| 4 | Kodak Ektar H35 Sage | Best simple reusable camera | 35mm half-frame | Focus-free design, built-in flash | 0.22 lb | Lightweight film walks |
| 5 | Canon EOS Kiss | Best autofocus SLR | 35mm SLR | Autofocus, 35 to 80mm EF lens | Not listed | Easy SLR shooting |
| 6 | Fujifilm QuickSnap Flash 400 | Best disposable pair | Single-use 35mm | ISO 400 film, 10-foot flash range | 0.2 lb | Parties and events |
| 7 | MaxMango D53 | Best digital alternative | Digital | 12MP, screenless, 8GB card | Not listed | Retro shooting without film |
| 8 | Kodak Ektar H35 Black | Best black H35 | 35mm half-frame | Focus-free design, built-in flash | 0.22 lb | A pocketable reusable camera |
| 9 | Kodak Ektar H35 Black Bundle | Best H35 starter kit | 35mm half-frame | Includes 24-exposure film, built-in flash | 0.44 lb | Starting with film in hand |
| 10 | Fujifilm Instax Mini Film | Best for instant prints | Instax Mini | ISO 800, 20 exposures | 0.04 lb | Instax Mini cameras |
1. Canon AE-1: Best Overall
Pros
- Genuine SLR controls with automatic and manual exposure
- Built-in TTL metering
- 1/1000-second top shutter speed
- Compatible with Canon FD lenses
- Includes a 50mm 1:1.8 lens
Cons
- Renewed condition can vary
- Heavier than every compact camera here
- Manual focusing takes practice
Best for: someone who wants to learn traditional 35mm photography with room to grow.
The Canon AE-1 is the camera here that feels like a proper photographic instrument rather than a novelty. Its metal body, familiar SLR layout, and included 50mm 1:1.8 lens give a beginner a clear path from simply taking pictures to understanding why a picture worked. You have a viewfinder, a real focusing ring, an exposure system, and controls that encourage you to slow down before pressing the shutter.
Its shutter range runs from 1/1000 second to 2 seconds, with a Bulb mode for longer exposures. That spread is useful in practice. The fast end can help freeze movement or control bright scenes, while the slower settings open up deliberate low-light work when the camera is stabilized. Built-in TTL metering reads through the lens, so exposure guidance is based on the lens and scene rather than a separate external meter.
The AE-1 also supports automatic and manual exposure settings. That makes it more approachable than a fully manual vintage SLR, but it does not box you into automation. The Canon FD lens mount is another major advantage. The supplied 50mm lens is a sensible starting point, and compatible FD lenses let you explore wider or longer perspectives later. That system flexibility is something the Kodak Ektar H35 cameras cannot offer.
The trade-off is weight and age. At 1.95 pounds, this is not the camera you forget is hanging from your shoulder, and a renewed vintage camera deserves a careful inspection when it arrives. Manual focusing is also slower than the autofocus Canon EOS Kiss. Skip the AE-1 if you want instant operation or a tiny camera for every outing. Keep it in mind if you want the most satisfying learning experience in this group and prefer a camera that makes each decision visible.
2. Kodak Ektar H35 Sage Bundle: Best Beginner Bundle
Pros
- Half-frame format can produce about 48 images from 24-exposure film
- Focus-free operation is easy to understand
- Built-in flash works indoors and at night
- Compact body weighs under half a pound
- Includes one roll of Ultramax 400 film
Cons
- Battery is not included
- Fixed focus limits creative control
- Half-frame images are smaller than standard 35mm frames
Best for: a first-time film shooter who wants a reusable camera and a roll of film to start with.
The Kodak Ektar H35 Sage Bundle removes most of the intimidation from film photography. It is small enough to carry daily, simple enough to hand to a friend, and forgiving enough for casual snapshots. The body measures about 4.33 inches long, 2.56 inches high, and 1.77 inches wide, while its listed weight is about 0.44 pound. That makes it dramatically easier to carry than the Canon AE-1.
This is a half-frame 35mm camera, so each exposure uses roughly half the area of a conventional 35mm frame. The practical result is about 48 half-frame photos from the included 24-exposure roll. The smaller frame changes the look and encourages diptychs, vertical compositions, and sequences of two related pictures. It is not the right format for someone chasing the largest possible negative, but it is excellent for documenting a trip or a day without constantly worrying about wasting film.
The controls are intentionally sparse. The focus-free lens lets you point and shoot, and the built-in flash is activated by adjusting the silver ring around the lens. That flash gives the H35 a useful indoor option that many basic reusable cameras lack. The included Kodak Ultramax 400 roll makes the bundle more immediately usable, although the AAA battery still has to be supplied separately.
Compared with the standard Kodak Ektar H35 Sage, this bundle is the more convenient starting point because it includes film. The camera itself is not more capable, and the Pentax 17 produces a more considered half-frame experience with zone focusing and a better specified lens. Choose the H35 Bundle when ease and portability matter more than control. Skip it if you want sharp focus decisions, interchangeable lenses, or the classic SLR handling of the Canon AE-1.
3. Pentax 17: Best Premium Half-Frame
Pros
- Six-zone focus system is more deliberate than fixed focus
- 25mm F3.5 lens is equivalent to 37mm in 35mm format
- Magnesium alloy top and bottom covers
- Manual film-winding lever
- Can capture up to 72 images per roll
Cons
- Larger and heavier than the Kodak H35
- Half-frame format is not ideal for maximum image detail
- Requires learning the focus zones
Best for: photographers who want the economy of half-frame film without giving up purposeful controls.
The Pentax 17 is the serious half-frame camera in this lineup. It keeps the format's efficient use of 35mm film but adds a level of involvement that the Kodak H35 does not attempt. The body has a retro-inspired shape with magnesium alloy top and bottom covers, and its 1.35-pound weight gives it a more substantial feel than the featherweight Kodak models.
Its lens is a 25mm F3.5 design, equivalent to 37mm in the 35mm format. That is a useful everyday perspective for street scenes, travel, and small groups. The lens has HD coating intended to optimize image quality for the half-size frame. Because the camera records two 17mm by 24mm images within one 35mm exposure, the vertical orientation becomes part of the creative process rather than a minor technical detail.
Focus is handled through six zones, from close subjects to distant scenes. You select the mark that matches the subject's distance, which is simpler than manual focusing through an SLR viewfinder but more intentional than the fixed-focus H35. The manual film-winding lever adds another tactile step after every shot. With the right film, the camera can capture up to 72 images per roll, giving sequences and travel journals plenty of breathing room.
The Pentax 17 beats the Kodak H35 for control, build information, and compositional intent, while the Canon AE-1 remains the better choice for full SLR flexibility. It is also less pocket-friendly than the H35 and asks the user to pay attention to focus zones. If you want a camera that disappears into a bag, choose the Kodak. If you want half-frame photography to feel like a craft rather than a disposable experiment, the Pentax 17 is the more compelling pick.
4. Kodak Ektar H35 Sage: Best Simple Reusable Camera
Pros
- Extremely light at about 0.22 pound
- Focus-free operation suits quick snapshots
- Built-in flash for indoor and evening scenes
- Reusable 35mm half-frame design
- Small body is easy to carry every day
Cons
- Film and AAA battery are not included
- Fixed-focus shooting offers little control
- Half-frame negatives have less area than standard 35mm
Best for: people who want the lightest straightforward reusable film camera in the group.
The Kodak Ektar H35 Sage is the uncomplicated version of the film camera many people actually carry. It weighs about 0.22 pound and measures roughly 4.33 inches long, 2.56 inches high, and 1.77 inches wide. Those dimensions make it a natural companion for walks, concerts, holidays, and everyday moments when a larger SLR would stay at home.
The half-frame format is the reason to buy it. Each press of the shutter records a smaller frame, so a 36-exposure roll can yield around 72 photos. That makes paired images especially natural: a wide view followed by a detail, or a portrait followed by the surrounding scene. The smaller negative is a limitation for enlargements and fine detail, but it encourages a relaxed, scrapbook-like style.
The H35 uses a focus-free setup, so there is no distance scale or focusing ring to manage. The built-in flash is turned on by adjusting the silver ring around the lens, giving the camera a simple answer for dim rooms and night scenes. That simplicity is its strength. You can hand it to someone who has never used film and explain the operation quickly.
It is essentially the same camera concept as the Kodak Ektar H35 Black, with the finish being the distinguishing detail here. The Sage Bundle includes a roll of Ultramax 400, so it is the more convenient first purchase if you do not already have film. The Sage camera itself is the better fit for someone who already knows what film they want. Choose it over the Pentax 17 when low weight matters more than zone focusing and lens refinement.
5. Canon EOS Kiss: Best Autofocus SLR
Pros
- Autofocus is easier than manual SLR focusing
- Includes a versatile 35 to 80mm EF lens
- Full auto, program, aperture priority, and shutter priority modes
- Wide-area autofocus point
- Built-in flash
Cons
- Renewed condition can vary
- Less tactile than the Canon AE-1
- Listed as camera body only despite the included lens title
Best for: photographers who want film SLR results with modern-style autofocus and exposure modes.
The Canon EOS Kiss is the practical counterpoint to the Canon AE-1. It is also sold as the EOS Rebel G in the United States and Canada, and the listing identifies those names as essentially the same camera. Its appeal is immediate: autofocus and several automated modes make it much easier to get started with an SLR without first mastering manual focus.
The included lens is a 35 to 80mm EF zoom, which covers a useful range from moderately wide to short telephoto. That flexibility suits portraits, street scenes, and general travel shooting better than being locked to one focal length. The camera also has a wide-area autofocus point, a clear LCD display, and a built-in flash for low-light scenes or fill light outdoors.
Its shooting modes include full auto, program, aperture priority, and shutter priority. That progression matters. A new film photographer can begin with full automation, then take over one decision at a time. Aperture priority is useful when depth of field matters, while shutter priority gives more direct control over motion. The Canon AE-1 offers a more classic hands-on experience, but the EOS Kiss is more welcoming when speed and consistency matter.
The weakness is character. It feels more like a late-generation electronic SLR than a mechanical vintage object, and renewed examples deserve careful checking. The listing also presents a confusing “camera body only” size description even though the title specifies a 35 to 80mm lens, so buyers should verify the delivered contents. Pick it over the AE-1 if manual focus is a barrier. Pick the AE-1 if the tactile process is the whole reason you want film.
6. Fujifilm QuickSnap Flash 400: Best Disposable Pair
Pros
- Preloaded ISO 400 film
- 27 exposures in each camera
- Built-in flash reaches 10 feet
- Continuous flash switch
- Two cameras provide 54 total exposures
Cons
- Single-use design cannot be reloaded
- No exposure or focus controls
- Results depend heavily on available light and distance
Best for: weddings, parties, trips, and other occasions where simplicity matters more than camera ownership.
The Fujifilm QuickSnap Flash 400 is the easiest route into film photography because there is almost nothing to set up. Each camera arrives preloaded with ISO 400 film and provides 27 exposures. The two-pack therefore gives you 54 total exposures, enough to place one camera at an event and keep the other with the person taking pictures.
The fixed setup is both the attraction and the limit. There is no lens changing, focus adjustment, or exposure control to slow anyone down. The built-in flash has a stated range of 10 feet, and the continuous flash switch makes it easier to keep the flash ready for a sequence of indoor shots. ISO 400 film is a sensible general-purpose choice for daylight and ordinary indoor use, though it cannot compensate for every dark room.
At about 6 inches long, 4.88 inches wide, and 1.3 inches high, the camera is slim enough to pass around. Its listed weight is about 0.2 pound, so it will not distract from the event. The trade-off is that it is not reusable. Unlike the Kodak Ektar H35 cameras, the QuickSnap is meant to be used through its preloaded roll and then processed.
The QuickSnap is a better event tool than the MaxMango D53 when the charm of actual film matters, and a better choice than the Canon cameras when handing a camera to a group matters. It is not a learning tool and cannot match the Pentax 17 or AE-1 for creative control. If you want a low-pressure way to record a party, use this pair. If you want to build a long-term film habit, buy a reusable camera instead.
7. MaxMango D53: Best Digital Alternative
Pros
- Screenless design discourages constant image review
- 12MP digital capture
- Includes an 8GB SD card
- USB-C cable is included
- Supports downloadable creative filters
Cons
- It is digital, not film
- Only one filter can be applied at a time
- No display for checking composition
Best for: someone who wants the restraint and look of a disposable camera without buying or processing film.
The MaxMango D53 is the outlier here, but it solves a real problem. Some people want the deliberate, screen-free behavior of a disposable camera without waiting for film processing. This is a 12MP digital camera with no screen, so it removes the familiar cycle of shoot, inspect, delete, and repeat.
The lack of a display changes how you photograph. Composition becomes an estimate rather than something you confirm immediately, which gives the D53 some of the uncertainty that makes film appealing. It also avoids the hard limit of a 27-exposure QuickSnap or a roll loaded into the Kodak cameras. The camera includes an 8GB SD card, along with a wrist strap and USB-C cable, so the basic kit is ready to use.
The D53 supports custom filters downloaded from the official website to the camera's TF card. Only one filter can be applied while shooting, and changing it requires downloading another filter and placing it in the camera's root directory. That is more involved than simply choosing a film stock, but it gives the camera a creative option the film products do not have.
This is not a substitute for the Canon AE-1 or Pentax 17 if your interest is in lenses, film emulsions, or developing a traditional process. It is a better fit than the Fujifilm QuickSnap for someone who wants repeated use and easy file transfer. Readers comparing this with modern digital gear may also want to consider how much control a digital camera gives beginners before deciding whether screenless shooting is the feature or the frustration.
8. Kodak Ektar H35 Black: Best Black H35
Pros
- Reusable half-frame 35mm format
- Focus-free operation
- Built-in flash for day and night use
- About 0.22 pound
- Pocket-friendly dimensions
Cons
- Film and AAA battery are not included
- Fixed-focus lens gives limited control
- Smaller half-frame negatives reduce enlargement flexibility
Best for: someone who wants the standard black H35 configuration for uncomplicated everyday photography.
The Kodak Ektar H35 Black has the same basic appeal as the Sage model, but its black finish gives it a more understated appearance. The important parts are unchanged: it is reusable, takes 35mm film, records half-frame images, and keeps operation simple enough for a first-time shooter.
Its compact body measures about 4.33 inches long, 2.56 inches high, and 1.77 inches wide. At approximately 0.22 pound, it is one of the lightest options in the roundup. That matters more than a small difference on a specification sheet because the H35 is designed to be carried constantly. The camera is easy to bring along when you do not want to plan a photographic outing.
The focus-free design means you concentrate on framing, timing, and light rather than setting a distance. The built-in flash is switched on by adjusting the silver ring around the lens, allowing the camera to work in both outdoor and indoor situations. As with the Sage version, a 36-exposure roll can yield around 72 half-frame images, though each image occupies less film area than a conventional 35mm frame.
There is no functional reason to choose this over the Sage H35 beyond the finish, and the Sage Bundle is a more convenient first step because it includes a roll of film. The Black Bundle offers the same convenience in this color. Choose the Black H35 when you already have film and want the lightest, least demanding reusable camera. For more precise focus, the Pentax 17 is the clear upgrade.
9. Kodak Ektar H35 Black Bundle: Best H35 Starter Kit
Pros
- Includes one roll of Kodak Ultramax 400 film
- Half-frame format can produce about 48 images from that roll
- Focus-free operation
- Built-in flash
- Compact and easy to carry
Cons
- AAA battery is not included
- Fixed focus limits control
- Bundle film packaging may vary
Best for: a new film photographer who prefers the black H35 and wants film included.
The Kodak Ektar H35 Black Bundle is the starter-kit version of the Black H35. Its body weighs about 0.44 pound and measures approximately 4.33 by 1.77 by 2.56 inches. That is still small enough for daily carry, although the listed bundle weight is higher than the standalone Black H35.
The included Kodak Ultramax 400 roll gives a new user an immediate way to begin. The bundle listing says it is a 24-exposure roll, and the half-frame design can produce around 48 images from it. The packaging may be Kodak Alaris or Eastman Kodak depending on availability, but the useful distinction is that the camera and a first roll arrive together.
Operation remains intentionally basic. The focus-free lens avoids distance settings, while the built-in flash can be engaged by rotating the silver ring around the lens. This makes it suitable for casual indoor pictures as well as daylight snapshots. It is much less demanding than the Canon EOS Kiss and far less involved than the Canon AE-1, but that is precisely why it works for handing to a beginner.
The Black Bundle is functionally the same as the Sage Bundle, so choose between them by finish and by which listing suits your needs. The standalone Black H35 makes more sense if you already own film, while the Pentax 17 makes more sense if you want a sharper sense of control over focus and composition. Skip this bundle if you dislike half-frame images or want to choose every exposure yourself.
10. Fujifilm Instax Mini Film: Best for Instant Prints
Pros
- ISO 800 suits a range of everyday lighting
- 2.13 by 3.4 inch image size
- Vibrant color reproduction
- Excellent sharpness for instant film
- 20 exposures in the twin pack
Cons
- Requires an Instax Mini camera
- Not compatible with the 35mm cameras here
- Instant prints are smaller than many traditional photographs
Best for: Instax Mini owners who want dependable color film and physical prints immediately.
The Fujifilm Instax Mini Film is not a camera, but it belongs in this roundup because instant photography is one of the most common alternatives to traditional 35mm film. It is a twin pack containing 20 exposures for Instax Mini cameras, with a finished image size of 2.13 by 3.4 inches. The results are physical prints rather than files waiting for development or scanning.
ISO 800 gives the film useful sensitivity for ordinary indoor and outdoor scenes. Fujifilm lists excellent sharpness and vibrant color reproduction, which suits the social side of instant cameras. You take a picture, wait for the print to develop, and have something to pass across a table or put in a wallet. That immediacy is something no Canon SLR or Kodak half-frame camera can provide.
The limitation is compatibility. This film works with Instax Mini cameras, not with the 35mm bodies in this article. It also gives you less flexibility after the shutter is pressed. A negative can be scanned, enlarged, or interpreted in several ways, while an instant print is a finished object with a fixed 2.13 by 3.4 inch image.
Choose this only if you already own an Instax Mini camera or intend to buy one. For a traditional film workflow, the Canon AE-1 remains the stronger starting point. For an event where guests should leave with a picture, however, Instax has a directness that the QuickSnap cannot match. If you are choosing between physical prints and digital files, the difference between immediate prints and flexible digital shooting is a useful question to settle first.
How to choose best film cameras
The right film camera is defined less by its appearance than by the amount of control, portability, and waiting you are willing to accept.
Film format
Standard 35mm frames give you the most familiar traditional film experience and use the full width of the film strip for each image. The Canon AE-1 and Canon EOS Kiss use this approach. Half-frame cameras such as the Kodak Ektar H35 and Pentax 17 record two smaller images in one standard 35mm exposure, so they stretch a roll further but produce smaller negatives.
Instant film is a separate format entirely. The Fujifilm Instax Mini Film creates a physical 2.13 by 3.4 inch print and requires a compatible Instax Mini camera. Disposable cameras use preloaded 35mm film but cannot be reloaded, while the MaxMango D53 is digital rather than film.
Focus and exposure control
Fixed-focus cameras keep operation simple but leave the camera to handle distance. The Kodak H35 models are designed around that approach. The Pentax 17 gives you six focus zones, which adds a useful layer of control without becoming as involved as manual focusing.
The Canon AE-1 gives you manual and automatic exposure with TTL metering, while the EOS Kiss adds autofocus plus full auto, program, aperture priority, and shutter priority modes. Choose the simplest system that matches your interest. More controls are useful only when you want to use them.
A camera that stays in your bag because it is complicated is less useful than a simple camera you carry every day.
Low-light shooting
A built-in flash can make a small camera more useful indoors. The Kodak H35 cameras use a flash activated through the lens ring, and both Canon models have built-in flash systems. The Fujifilm QuickSnap Flash 400 has a built-in flash with a stated 10-foot range.
Film speed also matters. The QuickSnap uses ISO 400 film, the Kodak bundle includes Ultramax 400, and the Instax Mini film is ISO 800. Faster film can help in dimmer conditions, but it does not replace a flash or solve every low-light scene.
Size and weight
The Kodak H35 models are the lightest reusable cameras here, with the standalone versions listed at about 0.22 pound. The Sage and Black bundles are listed at about 0.44 pound. The Pentax 17 weighs 1.35 pounds, while the Canon AE-1 weighs 1.95 pounds.
Weight affects how often you carry the camera. Choose a compact H35 for daily snapshots, the Pentax 17 for a more substantial half-frame experience, or an SLR when the camera itself is part of the creative process.
Reusable design
Reusable cameras let you choose another roll after the first one, which makes them better for building a continuing habit. The Canon AE-1, Canon EOS Kiss, Kodak H35 models, and Pentax 17 all fit that role.
The Fujifilm QuickSnap is preloaded and single-use, so it is best for a defined event. The Instax film is replaceable, but only within the Instax Mini system. The MaxMango D53 stores digital images and can be used repeatedly without film loading or processing.
Frequently asked questions
Are half-frame cameras worth choosing?
Half-frame cameras are useful when you want more photographs from each roll and enjoy pairing images. The trade-off is a smaller negative, which can limit enlargement and fine detail. The Kodak Ektar H35 is the easy option, while the Pentax 17 adds six-zone focusing and a 25mm F3.5 lens.
Is the Canon AE-1 suitable for beginners?
Yes, provided the beginner is willing to learn manual focus and basic exposure decisions. Its TTL metering and automatic exposure option make the first steps easier, while manual controls and Canon FD lens compatibility leave room to develop. It is less immediate than the Canon EOS Kiss.
What is the difference between the Kodak H35 bundles and standalone cameras?
The bundle versions include one roll of Kodak Ultramax 400 film. The standalone H35 versions do not include film, and the listings state that the AAA battery is not included for these products. The camera functions are otherwise described in the same way within each matching color.
Does the Fujifilm QuickSnap Flash 400 need a separate battery?
The product is preloaded with ISO 400 film and includes a built-in flash, but the supplied data does not specify a separate battery requirement. Its flash has a stated range of 10 feet and a continuous flash switch. It is a single-use camera rather than a reloadable body.
Can the MaxMango D53 be used like a film camera?
It can imitate part of the experience because it is screenless and discourages instant review, but it is still a digital camera. It captures 12MP images to an included 8GB SD card and supports downloadable filters. There is no film loading, chemical processing, or physical negative.
What film works with the Canon AE-1?
The Canon AE-1 is described as a 35mm SLR camera. The supplied data confirms compatibility with Canon FD lenses, but it does not identify a specific film stock. Choose compatible 35mm film according to the lighting and look you want, then follow the camera's loading instructions.
Is Instax Mini Film compatible with 35mm cameras?
No. The Fujifilm Instax Mini Film is made for Instax Mini instant cameras. Its ISO 800 film produces 2.13 by 3.4 inch instant images and cannot be loaded into the Canon, Kodak, Pentax, or Fujifilm QuickSnap cameras listed here.
The bottom line
The Canon AE-1 is the strongest all-around recommendation for the Best film cameras because it combines TTL metering, manual and automatic exposure, a 1/1000-second top shutter speed, and access to Canon FD lenses. It has real weaknesses, especially its weight and the uncertainty that comes with a renewed vintage body, but it gives the most room to learn.
For simple everyday shooting, choose the Kodak Ektar H35 Sage Bundle. For a more controlled half-frame experience, choose the Pentax 17. The Canon EOS Kiss is the better SLR for autofocus, while the Fujifilm QuickSnap Flash 400 makes more sense for a one-time event.
If you are undecided, buy the Canon AE-1 for control or the Kodak Ektar H35 for portability and simplicity.
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